The Development of Editing Technology

The purpose of editing a film is to piece together a sequence of clips to create a film that makes sense and also has an impact on the viewers emotions. The idea of editing is to determine in what order the information is to be received, how the audience is meant to feel about the events and the characters, the pace of the narrative etc.

To begin with, all editing was done in-camera. Each clip was shot in chronological order, therefore one reel of film was played at a time. One of the earliest known edited films was 'The Great Train Robbery' which was written and produced by Edwin S Porter. The film was only 12 minutes in length but includes a wide variety of editing techniques such as jump cuts and cross-cutting. 

Moviola

The earliest forms of editing were very basic. Laboratory processing of the exposed film negatives was required and then if a film editor wanted to cut a scene, they would have to cut the reel of film over a well of light. This method had to be repeated several times and was very time-consuming. However, in 1924, the moviola was introduce by a man named Iwan Serruier. It was a device that allowed a film editor to view a film whilst editing it simultaneously. 

Film editors could study individual shots in the cutting room so that they could pin-point an appropriate point to cut. The moviola was a vertically-orientated machine where the work prints and magnetic sound tapes were run in a similar way to the thread in a sewing machine. At one point in the process, each frame on the print would pass through a lens and the image would get viewed on the machine's viewing screen. A special chalk-like pen could then be used on each frame to mark on what the editor intended to do - whether he wanted to cut or splice the frame.

The Moviola was adopted by many huge names in the film industry, such as Universal Studios, Warner Brothers and Charles Chaplain Studios. Even today, famous director Stephen Spielberg instructed that the film editor he employed for his film Munich, Michael Kahn, use the moviola machine to edit.

Flatbed Edit Suite
A Flatbed Edit suite is type of editing machine used with motion picture. Images and sound rolls are loaded onto separate plates. Each set of plates moves individually, or they can be locked together to maintain synchronisation between the images and the sound. A prism reflects the images onto a screen, and a magnetic playback head reads the audio tracks. The most common flatbed editors are the six-plate which has one picture transport, two sound transports, and the eight-plate, which has two picture and two sound transports. Most films are shot on a double-system, which is where the sound and picture are recorded on separate machines. The sound is then transferred to a magnetic track (filmstock coated with magnetic oxide). The editor must then synchronize the picture and sound. The rolls are loaded onto the plates and the film and sound is advanced to find when the clapperboard came together. Once both have been located, a mark is made on both of the strips and the flatbed is switched into interlock mode, so both picture and sound rolls move at the same pace to keep them synchronized. When the editor sees a point to cut one shot away to another, he marks is on both strips and makes a cut in both and adds in the next shot. Steenbeck and K-E-M (Keller-Elektro-Mechanik) are the two most common brands of flatbed editors, and both invented in Germany in the 1930s.
  

Linear and Non-Linear Editing
Linear editing is a post-production process of selecting, arranging and modifying images and sound in a predetermined sequence, (also known as tape-to-tape) it was the only way to edit video tapes to begin with and was used a lot in live TV. In the 1990s, Non-Linear editing (NLE) computers became available and gave a new way of editing. This allowed the original content to not be modified, but the edits themselves are edited by editing software. Each time the audio, video or image is rendered or played back it is copied from the original and editing steps, keeping the original copy safe.

References

• Timrohamro.com,. "Moviola: The First Movie Editing Machine". N.p., 2016. Web. 6 Jan. 2016.
•  Itchyfish.com,. "Old School Film Editing Machines: Moviola And Steenbeck - Itchy Fish". N.p., 2010. Web. 6 Jan. 2016.

Esay Presentation content

Contextual studies
   La Nouvelle Vague

By Quiarna Brewster

During this presentation I will be looking at the rise of the French New Wave (La Nouvelle Vague) , and how it substantially changed film today. I shall be analysing the impact it made on the film industry. I shall focus on the works of Francois Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard as, personally, I believe their work to be the most iconic of the French New Wave and created most impact. The films I have studied and will talk about in this presentation are Truffaut’s “The 400 Blows” (1959), Godard’s “Contempt” (1963) and “Breathless” (1960).

   The French new wave is an example of European art cinema. It is a rejection of the classical-style of film making, which was favoured by studios up to the time. It came about in the early 1950’s when a group of young, French intellectuals met to argue about film. These men were Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Francois Truffaut and Jacques Rivette. They met to argue about film and critique some of the most prominent directors at the times work such as, John Ford, Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock. Although they admired the work of these directors, they felt that American cinema lacked a personal connection with the audience and that there was an absence of feeling. This led them to agree that directors should have a personal connection to their films and that films should contain ideologies of the director (alike the belief of Andre Bazin; the Auteur theory). This is a conviction that the best films are of personal artistic expression and should bear a stamp of personal authorship.

The president of France during 1958 to 1969 was Charles De Gaulle. Due to the end of the 2nd World War Parisian cinemas had an influx of foreign films, particularly American ones. Previously banned films such as “Zero de conduite‘” by Jean Vigo (1933) and “La Regle du jeu” by Jean Renoir (1939) were then released. Films such as these inspired French filmmakers and showed them that French cinema could be just as captivating and iconic as the American.

Cinema was very important in culture-starved post war France, and most of the New Wave directors were still thinking about this so their films were influenced by this. The directors created a new cinematic style, using breakthrough techniques and a fresh, young approach to story telling. These expressed complex ideas whilst still being emotionally engaging and direct.

They also proved that they didn't need expensive mainstream studios to produce successful films. By doing this, La Nouvelle Vague set an example that inspired other filmmakers across the world.

La Nouvelle Vague: Conventions    

•The breaking of the 4th wall

•Jump cuts

•Extremely long shots

•Cutting shots showing journeys of from one destination to another

•The use of hand held cameras

•Cheap/no expensive equipment or editing

•Colour overlays

•Alternative framing

•Making mistakes

•Being self aware (self reference)

•Visual hidden messages

•Director uses a small crew

•Excessive use of diegetic sound

•Additional lighting was barely used

•Low budget

•A greater sense of flexibility and creativity

•Erasing the boundaries between professional and amateur cinema

•Reportage (hidden camera)

•Syncopated editing

•Discontinuity of shot (a disregard of continuity editing)

•Flash pans

•Interior monologues

•And last but NOT least: BREAKING THE RULES and creating new ones!!!!!!

Jean-Luc Godard – “Contempt” (1963)    

•Extremely real and personal

•Pushing the boundaries

•Colour overlay

•Colour changes (Red/White/Blue) shows the French flag – patriotic and makes a statement of “this is French cinema!”.

Jean-Luc Godard – “Breathless” (1960) 

•Autobiographical and is considered a "psychologically acute portrait of the artist as a young man“

•Almost no additional lighting

•Real locations with no extras, just the natural public

•Extremely cheap to make

•Jump cuts were utilised to  reduce irrelevant parts of the narrative and to shorten the film (they agreed that it should not follow the usual formulaic structure of film as the audience did not need to see every part of the characters lives)

•This technique also distorted the viewers perception of time.

Francois Truffaut– “The 400 Blows” (1959)   

•Filmed in a natural location (general public no extras) – people looking at the camera

•Verisimilitude – looks true and real

•Spinning scene – Camera man was on the ride

•Real reactions to ride, not acting

•Probably shot in one take – no script

•The film is considered of historical importance due to its instant critical and commercial success.

Impact on Modern Cinema 

Conventions of the French New Wave are incorporated in many directors work today. It completely revolutionised the film industry and has inspired modern directors such as Quentin Tarantino in “Pulp Fiction” (1994). An example of a New Wave convention he frequently uses is jump cuts.

Directors such as Wes Anderson conform to the idea that films should bear a stamp of personal authorship. An key example of this is the consistent visuals he uses in his films. Whilst utilising conventions such as jump cuts, hand held cameras and long shots, he personalises his work by keeping a line of symmetry in his shots. His colour scheme is always vibrant and loud e.g:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFI7_bH7E-M

Due to the accessibility of technology in modern society, it has become easier to create this style of film, as “cheaper is better”. The use of phones to record video is “breaking the rules” and, because of La Nouvelle Vague, it is easier to create a more personal style of film making for very little money. Independent filmmakers today use many of the New Wave techniques and the outcomes are triumphant.

   

Auteur Theory

The theory of filmmaking that a film reflects the directors personal vision.

Auteur theory originally arose in France in the 1940s as an outgrowth of cinematic theories or Andre Bazin and Alexandre Astruc, which was dubbed auteur theory by American film critic Andrew Sarris. Since then, it has been applied to popluar music and video game directors.
In Francois Truffaut’s 1954 essay, ‘Une certaine tendance du cinema francais’ (A certain tendency in French cinema) he coined the phrase “la politique des Auteurs”, assering that the worst of Jean Renoirs movies would always be more interesting than the best movies by Jean Delannoy. Some may see it as the policy of treting any director that uses a personal style or unique view as an Auteur. He suggested that the director should therefore be called an auteur.

‘There are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors’ – Francois Truffaut

In the 1960’s some film critics began criticising auteur theory’s focus on the authorial role of the director, with one cause of backlash being the collaborative aspect of filmmaking, and how auteur theory privilages the director. In Kael’s ‘Rising Kane’, an essay written about Orson Welles’ Citizen Kane, she points out that the film made extensive use of the talents of co writer Herman J. Mankiewicz and cinematographer Gregg Toland. Some screenwriters have hesitated at the idea that directors are more authorial than screenwriters. Film historian Aljean Marmetx, reffering to the creative input of producers and other executives in Classical Hollywood, argues that Auteur Theory “collapses against the reality of the studio system.”

The French New Wave Design Brief

After thorough research, I have decided which of the New Wave movements I would like to study: La Nouvelle Vague (The French New Wave). I have chosen this because personally, I believe the French New Wave to have had the biggest impact in cinema; an example of this, my favourite director being Wes Anderson, who was massively influenced by the french, as displayed in all of his films. I am researching and analysing 3 French New Wave texts, I shall decide which ones in a later post. During my studies in this revolution of cinema, I shall apply the French conventions to my own New Wave short film. Some of the techniques I will be using are: Lack of narrative, jump cuts, colour overlays, hand held camera, sunlight glare, playing with sound. All of these techniques were used to break the rules of film, for a cheaper and easier resort (jump cuts were used to make the film shorter, not for any deeper meaning). This created a more relatable type of cinema.

The French New wave and its Influences

The piece of text states that the 'Cahiers du Cinema' was founded in 1951. The magazine was where the young French filmmakers could express how they felt about the French films of the time. Godard, Rohmer and Rivette challenged each others opinions on film and how they believed films should be made. Bazin, one of the four founders of the magazine, however believed that films should reflect the directors "personal vision". Bazin also preferred films that showed the harsh reality of the French lifestyle of the time.

Source:
https://thefilmstage.com/features/the-classroom-french-new-wave-the-influencing-of-the-influencers/

Bibliography

Contempt (1963) plot summary -  Stephan Eichenberg - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057345/

Breathless (1960) plot summary - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053472/

The 400 Blows (1959) plot summary - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053198/

My Chosen Films to research

Jean Luc Godard - "Contempt" (1963)

Paul Javal is a writer who is hired to make a script for a new movie about Ulysses more commercial, which is to be directed by Fritz Lang and produced by Jeremy Prokosch. But because he let his wife Camille drive with Prokosch and he is late, she believes, he uses her as a sort of present for Prokosch to get get a better payment. So the relationship ends.

Jean Luc Godard - "Breathless" (1960)

A small-time thief steals a car and impulsively murders a motorcycle policeman. Wanted by the authorities, he reunites with a hip American journalism student and attempts to persuade her to run away with him to Italy.

Francois Truffaut- "The 400 Blows" (1959)

Moving story of a young boy who, left without attention, delves into a life of petty crime.

I will use certain clips from these films to support my statement that beaking the fourth wall is a convention af the new wave, alike jump cuts, long/lingering shots and no use of extras.

The Fall of the Studio system Research

The traditional studio system was the primary method of filming and distribution for Hollywood films created between the 20's and 60's, where the market was essentially composed of 8 major studios. During this time, the studios created films on their own studio lots (which were purpose made for the films), distributed them through their own distribution sub-companies and showed them at their self-owned substantial theatre chains.

New Wave Research

 I found this article online on http://www.newwavefilm.com/new-wave-cinema-guide/nouvelle-vague-where-to-start.shtml . 
I will use this to help me build my presentation as it breaks down the history behind the new wave and the knock on effects it had to cinema today. It also mentions that these filmmakers strongly disliked the generic films of their time and felt like their work needed to have feeling, emotion, and a personal connection to the audience; relatable and honest.

BOOK REFERENCES:

"New Waves in Cinema" - Sean Martin
http://moodle.kinged6nun.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/33611/mod_resource/content/0/New%20Waves%20in%20Cinema%20%28Sean%20Martin%29%20chapter%20.pdf

"The term "Nouvelle Vague" or "new wave" first appeared in the French magazine L'Express in October 1957, and referred to the post World War II generation of French Youth, who were




"French Cinema from its beginnings to the present" - Remi Fournier Lanzoni
Chapter 5 - The years of the French New Wave

"In the late 1950's, the emergence of the film director as the undisputed authority in all areas of film production (mine-en-scene, photography, script, thematic and artistic choices) was a direct result of a growing trend called politique des auteurs (authorism) that proclaimed the future predominance of a new cinema"

"The changes created a sense of diversity in cinema. Never before had an artistic movement revealed itself to be so seminal and influential, creating breathing space for creativity both in France and abroad."

"The New Wave camera work represented a radically different concept both in content and form. The traditional perception of cinematography, held by the tradition de qualite, which corroborated a visually flawless photography and concealed to audiences the work of true film artists, vehemently resisted the new trend."

My New wave short film - Evaluation

To execute the factors involved with creating a new wave film, I decided to experiment with jump cuts, diegetic and non diegetic sound, and length of shots. My short film doesn not follow a narrative which helps exaggerate the "uniqueness" of the choice of editing and shots.
Through the beginning of the film, I used diegetic sound only but introduced a repeat in fountain noise. As it jump cuts to diffetent locations and images (the Godiva Statue, the fountain, the walkway), the sound of the fountain plays over this which is quite loud and not pleasant to here. This contrasts the usual choice in audio as film is usually made to be pleasant to watch for the audience; this is where the New Wave broke these rules. As Ray walks through the walkway towards the camera, the sound of the fountain suddenly stops, leaving silence. I believe my choice to do this also conforms to the broken rules of the French New Wave.
I then decided to add a non diegetic song but keep only a repetitive instrumental of two chords on an keyboard. Ray is seen entering a telephone box and talking on the phone. For a split second he looks at the camera and smirks, to show the self awareness and the break of the fourth wall used in the New Wave. I beieve that I could have done this better, by making him hold the gaze a little longer, making it more obvious, or cutting to a close up as he looks at the camera. I should have taken inspiration from films such as "Breathless" (1960) which displays many examples of self awareness.
There is a rule in film that prevents a good camera man to never point the camera towards the sun or at direct light as it creates glare; another rule broken by La Nouvelle Vague. Although my film was shot at night (using muted tones creating a moody feel) I managed to include this by panning the camera to face a direct source of light, such as streetlamps.
Now I have looked back on the filming and editing process of my film, I feel as though i have a better understanding of how the New Wave came around and how that there wasn't much thought put into the filming process; it was just done easily and cheaply. I believe this was easy to execute and came more naturally to me.

My New Wave Short Film - Complete

Contextual Analysis - Easy Rider

This clip begins with a medium shot of four adults; two sitting on a bench, the other two sat on the floor. This type of shot delivers information to the audience. Non diegetic, eery music is playing which creates a tense atmosphere and creates a build up to an event. It shows the four adults participating in drug use. This shot also determines the location: outside of a rundown building on a bench. This shot has been taken with a hand held camera. This gives a sense of realism to the clip and makes the audience feel more involved with the action and as if they were there. It makes the happenings more intimate. The characters are wearing scruffy, dark clothes which, represents sin and suggests a negative mood. Natural outdoor lighting has been used to show the location. Diegetic dialogue is heard as some characters laugh and one says, “Just shut up and take it”.

After the characters and their actions have been identified, there is a 1 second shot of a vertical pan of a building. This identifies the location as perhaps being in a built up area such as a city. Plants are growing on the walls of the building suggesting that it has been abandoned. This may be portraying that these characters are from a low class. The shots then continue to switch from the location to the characters. This could show the ‘tripping’ effect of the drugs and is representing the changes of the characters mental states.

The pan of the building is moving upwards which conforms to the characters ‘getting high’. There is a glare of lighting across the camera which gives the impression of being blinded by the sun and suggests disorientation.

The final panning shot moves towards the sun, blinding the camera. This shows that the drugs are taking effect and may be a representation of ‘going into the light’.

We are now shown a close up of a girls face reading passages from the bible. The angle of the camera is looking up at her suggesting that she is of higher class or has higher morality than the other characters shown. She has her hair tied up and is wearing minimal make up conforming to the innocent/biblical stereotype. She talks about how Jesus sacrificed himself for us which is ironic as the four characters are being sinful. The shots begin to switch between one another as the girl talks about god and eventually the shot goes completely white as if being blinded by the sun. As this happens the girl reading gets muffled and what’s being said is no longer understandable. This shows the mindset of the characters under the influence of acid and how they can no longer see or hear purity as they are sinning.

The shot then switches to a man, perhaps one from the first shot, leaning his face against a religious statue. He says, “Shut up”. This suggests that he is hearing these religious passages in his head as a result of taking the drugs and could be hallucinating. By saying “shut up” it shows that he does not want to hear that he is doing wrong and he is trying to escape purity.